Education vs. School

"In times of profound change, the learners inherit the earth, while the learned find themselves beautifully equipped to deal with a world that no longer exists." —Al Rogers, pioneer in long-distance learning 

What exactly is the educational role of schools these days? Are schools flexible enough to meet the challenges of 21st century learning, or are they dinosaurs on the brink of extinction? Are stakeholders—teachers, administrators, students, parents, politicians, and bureaucrats alike—prepared for the looming academic cliff?

Are we brave enough, heroic enough, humble enough to discard the failed systems of thinking and finally embrace authentic, intrinsic, hyperconnected learning... or will we continue our desperate cling to a technophobic past that is doomed to collapse under the crushing, extrinsically-motivated weight of grades, test scores, heartless competition, and race to the top?

(And how complicit am I in perpetuating this anachronistic march toward obscurity?)

Of these questions and more I ponder...

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Thanks to for the love of learning, et al., for sharing this video

Ouch

The 2012 state of science standards: Colorado = D

"American science performance is lagging as the economy becomes increasingly high tech, but our current science standards are doing little to solve the problem. Reviewers [at the Thomas B. Fordham Institute] evaluated science standards for every state for this report and their findings were deeply troubling: The majority of states earned Ds or Fs for their standards in this crucial subject, with only six jurisdictions receiving As. Explore all the state report cards and see how your state performed."

I'm looking forward to the Next Generation Science Standards...

Value: Captured or Created?

"Create more value than you capture." —Tim O'Reilly, technical book publisher and entrepreneur

A recent article written by Tim O'Reilly mused about value creation vs. value capture, which got me thinking about educational value: Are we creating value or capturing value?

Image courtesy of morgueFile

With relentless emphasis on grades and test scores, I feel that today's schools and students are more focused on "value capture" than "value creation." The result is a motivation gap that is both widening and deepening within our education system—extrinsically motivated schools and students intent on grades and test scores engage more in value capture than those who seek intrinsic motivation and value creation. Of these two approaches, value capture is short-sighted and unsustainable, relying more on instant gratification and temporary "feel goods" than lifelong learning.

A continued diet of value capture (devoid of enduring understanding and lacking longterm transfer of skills and knowledge) will ultimately drive us toward intellectual starvation...

Writing in Science Class

A question posted recently on the National Science Teachers Association blog caught my attention:

We’re having a discussion in our secondary school science department. Some of us think our lessons should incorporate more opportunities for students to learn how to write, while others maintain there’s little time for writing and that’s the job of the English teachers. Who is correct?

I felt compelled to respond:

Communication in all forms is fundamental to science; therefore, writing should be a regular part of the science classroom. Teaching the writing process should not be the exclusive domain of just one teacher or department, but should be shared as part of school, grade level, and/or department goals and curricular expectations. Arbitrarily injecting writing exercises into the science classroom is neither the most efficient nor most effective approach to the task—common language among teachers and students as well as common writing strategies are needed to help maximize student progress in writing. 

Image courtesy of morgueFile

Including the process of writing into the science curriculum takes time, effort, resources, and collaboration—it’s tough to go it alone. It takes a shared vision and commitment to help students become better writers in all disciplines. 

While it may be (and is) daunting to add “one more thing” to the science classroom, better writers ultimately enhance all learning. Start small—incorporate one simple, manageable, and authentic strategy into your existing science repertoire, such as writing descriptive titles or writing scientific questions—then slowly build from there. The key to success is modeling and practicing the process until it becomes routine and comfortable to you and your students. 

As a science teacher, I shared the exact same questions and concerns as you when we first started emphasizing writing at our school many years ago. Now, writing (as well as reading, math, and other shared practices) is a regular and natural part of our everyday science experience, which is a source of pride and achievement for our students, our teachers, and our school.

What Is a Research Question?

During a recent professional development session among middle level science teachers, we pondered the criteria for an excellent research question. Powerful ideas emerged from our collective thinking.

Investigating Heating and Cooling Rates

An excellent research question:

• clearly identifies variables that will be tested
• helps visualize/identify equipment and materials needed to perform tests
• provides information about data that can be collected during the test
• is related to background information and observations
• reveals thinking about causes and effects
• is realistic, real world, and testable
• uses specific content vocabulary

There was a palpable feeling of accomplishment and pride at the end of our collaborative session, as we celebrated our continued progress in developing a common vision for authentic and meaningful science learning in our school district.

I know that professional development days can often cause inconvenience for parents, but providing quality collaboration time for teachers is a worthy investment in our children's education. Thank you for indulging us in these rich and rewarding professional experiences.

Delusion of Grades

"The purpose of school is to get good grades," declared one of my students recently. The delusion of grades strikes again.

National Academies:
21st Century Domains of Competence

Online gradebooks prominently display A's, B's, C's immediately upon student/parent login. Digital D&F reports are emailed to school staff weekly. Paper D&F reports are mailed to parents at the middle of each trimester. Athletic eligibility is dependent on grades. Honor rolls, 504 plans, parent conferences—all are grade-focused. At every turn, grades dictate the academic measure of our children.

In the face of never-ending grades, my quest to be a progressive educator who values and prioritizes learning over grades often feels like a losing battle. Grades are confounding—they distract students, parents, and teachers from creating authentic learning spaces and from having meaningful conversations about learning. We are deluding ourselves with grades...

How can we counterbalance grade delusion in the classroom? While I am still required to keep a traditional gradebook, there are a number of things I've done to de-emphasize grades while facilitating better conversations about learning:

• I write only concise and useful feedback on student papers, but no grades—grades are entered into the electronic gradebook,
• I create holistic Help Guides and Standards of Excellence that outline what high quality learning looks like in the classroom—students use these to edit and check their work,
• I let my students see that I am a lifelong learner, and most importantly,
• I strive to have one-on-one conversations about learning with my students every day… while they are actually learning.

Despite these practices, much work remains to overcome grade delusion.

If we continue to prioritize grades over learning, we delude ourselves into thinking we can create environments of intrinsic motivation and lifelong learning in our schools. Grades reinforce a system of external rewards and extrinsic motivation; they frequently disenfranchise and ultimately disempower students.

The National Academies has developed a set of guidelines that emphasize deeper learning and transferable knowledge as part of a student's 21st century skill set. These skills have been preliminarily organized into three domains of competence—cognitive, intrapersonal, and interpersonal—as a way to help define education in lifelong terms. Our conversations within schools, among students, between teachers and parents, and across the wider community need more focus on these competencies and deeper learning.

To teach for deeper learning, the National Academies guidelines recommends that instruction follow these research-based teaching methods:

• Use multiple and varied representations of concepts and tasks
• Encourage elaboration, questioning, and explanation
• Engage learners in challenging tasks
• Teach with examples and cases
• Prime student motivation
• Use “formative” assessments

Happily, I don't see any mention of grades in that list…

To break the cycle of grade delusion, perhaps we adults can teach ourselves to ask students, "What did you learn today?" and have it stimulate rich and compelling conversations.

Our Misplaced Fears about Technology

School teachers and administrators have a moral and ethical obligation to help students learn how to be conscientious 21st century citizens. When it comes to technology, though, we are failing in our obligation. Twice in this brand new school year I've heard well-meaning, but badly misplaced, messages from adults about the perils of technology. It seems that technology is the scapegoat for any less-than-desirable behavior among adults and children. Borne out of fear and ignorance, our biased view of technology reveals our technological illiteracy and ultimately perpetuates negative stereotypes and misconceptions.

Image courtesy of morgueFile

Technology itself is neither bad nor evil. The Facebooks, Twitters, and other social media environments of the digital universe all have the potential for both harm and good. In my opinion, the good far outweighs the bad. These technologies allow us to make global connections with a diverse range of peoples, cultures, and organizations, greatly enhancing our ability to share, learn, and grow. Our hyperconnectivity stimulates our social evolution and brings us closer together.

Sadly, school systems still seem ill-equipped to address the challenges and potentials of technology. It is easier to ban, censor, and filter than commit ourselves to promoting and encouraging positive digital citizenship. Is it any wonder that we find kids turned off by school when we ask them to turn off the very devices and networks that are most important in their lives? We can, and should, do better…

The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) publishes some of the most comprehensive and forward-thinking guidelines for technology. ISTE's family of National Educational Technology Standards (NETS)—for students, teachers, and administrators—provides guidance about 21st century digital skills and best practices. I believe they should be required study for all educators and administrators.

While children certainly must be protected from harm and exploitation, they also must be empowered to make responsible decisions about technology. Because technology has forever changed the landscape of our children's lives, it is incumbent upon adult educators to stop hiding and start embracing the power and potential of technology. On the arc of digital history, censoring and prohibiting technology in schools places us on the wrong pathway.

Learning Principles and Understanding

Our school district has adopted the following three learning principles:

1. Effectively accommodating a learner's preferred learning style, prior knowledge, and interests enhances learning.
2. Learners reveal and demonstrate their understanding when they can apply, transfer, and adapt their learning to new and novel situations.
3. Learning is purposeful and contextual.

After dissecting the statements and reflecting a bit, I interpret these principles as follows:

• Principle #1: Empathy—teachers demonstrate empathy for the learning diversity of their students.
• Principle #2: Lifelong Learning—teachers facilitate learning that leads to deep, enduring understanding.
• Principle #3: I Can—teachers create a meaningful environment where students believe that "I can learn, think, do, etc."

While still part of our school conversation, I am beginning to sense (thankfully) that standardized data no longer dominates our thinking. Courageous conversations which focus on learning and understanding are being explored and embraced once again. As part of our never-ending Hero's Journey, we seek insight and transformation, "Arriving where we started and knowing the place for the first time."

What learning principles guide and accompany you on your journey?

Whither Our Heroes?

We lost a hero yesterday, a giant of a man whose small step brought the Moon (and beyond) closer to us all.

Image courtesy of NASA

My circle of true heroes is vanishing; I watch as the legacies of wondrous deeds and heroic accomplishments fade into distant memory, replaced by vacuous rhetoric, empty promises, and dishonorable lies. I wonder and despair: Why has the wisdom, experience, and pursuit of science been relegated to pariah status, dismissed as an afterthought?

Whither our heroes?

Where are the visionaries, the women and men who still dare to boldly go? Our species squanders its hyperconnectivity—blindly rallying itself behind ideology, zealotry, denialism, hypocrisy, misogyny, hate, discrimination... and chicken sandwiches—while our air, soil, and water fill with toxins; our eyes, ears, and brains fill with pablum; and our Earth system teeters on catastrophe.

Our Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity are not enough to save us from our own greed, selfishness, and ignorance. We need Passion, and Clarity, and Courage, and Audacity!

Who are our children's Neil Armstrongs, Sally Rides, and Carl Sagans?

Who will speak for Earth… and when will we listen?

Whither our heroes?

Science Help Guides

I try to limit the quantity of paperwork that I distribute to students at the beginning of the year. I like to keep things streamlined and simplified, distilling classroom guidelines and expectations down to the bare essentials. Additionally, I don't distribute this paperwork to students on the first (or even second, or third…) day of school—it's better to jump right in and get the science started, giving students and me a chance to collaborate and socialize.

Once we are ready to talk about the classroom nuts and bolts, one of the most important documents I distribute are my Science Help Guides. These guides are a collection of standards of excellence for various tasks that we utilize throughout the year. Thanks to continuous feedback from and observations of students, these help guides have evolved over the years to their latest and greatest iteration. I tell my students annually, "These are the best help guides ever because they reflect the collective wisdom of every group of students who have preceded you."

Image credit: Microsoft Clipart

This year's help guides include the following:

• How to Be Successful in Science Class
• Standards of Excellence for Science Writing
• Masterpiece Captions
• Connect the Dots
• Data Tables
• Graphs
• Show Me the Math!
• Bibliographies and Picture Credits

I am proud of these help guides. They give my students and me a common language to share, work from, and build upon. While the help guides provide structure and support, I strive to ensure that they don't completely stifle opportunities for individuality. They are meant to be guidelines, rather than rigid rules. Student creativity beyond these guidelines is welcomed and encouraged.

Students and teachers alike are free to download and use these help guides. They are published under a Creative Commons license (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0). I only ask that my copyright is honored and respected, and that I am given proper credit for the guides. Otherwise, I hope they are beneficial…

Beware Charlatan Science

“Science literacy is vaccine against charlatans of the world that would exploit your ignorance of the forces of nature.” —Neil deGrasse Tyson, Astrophysicist

Image credit: Microsoft Clipart

Conscientious scientists do not cherry-pick data to fit their conclusions (that's bias), but allow data and evidence to inform, educate, and guide their research—no matter the unexpected results. Science is challenging and complex; yet we must be cautious of charlatans who seek to infect us with pseudoscience and denialism:

• Beware of charlatan "scientists" who cherry-pick data and selectively name-drop. Unfortunately, many members of US Congress fit into this category, especially those who subscribe to climate change denialism.
• Beware of charlatan "scientists" who do not understand what "uncertainty" means in science. Scientists must always consider, respect, and address the physical and statistical uncertainties in their data, measurements, and models, and they must express their results in terms of mathematical confidence.
• Beware of charlatan "scientists" who misuse the term "theory" (as in, "it's just a theory"). A scientific theory is a well-reasoned explanation based on mountains of evidence—it is not just a guess. An educated guess in science is called a hypothesis, which must be tested for validity before its veracity can be established.
• Beware of "news" organizations that claim to tell "both sides of the story" equitably. One dissenting opinion does not negate thousands of peer-reviewed, published research papers. One loud-mouthed argument does not constitute a fair balance.
• Beware of charlatan "scientists" who short-circuit the quality assurance and rigor built into the peer-review process. Scientists themselves are their own worst critics and very effectively weed out questionable science.

In an age of charlatanism, it is important that science education remain vigilant and true to how science really works. A good science curriculum teaches students about the nature of science and fully engages students in the complexities of scientific thinking, knowing, and doing. For more about How Science Works, visit Understanding Science, an amazing website developed by the University of California Museum of Paleontology.

Summer Unlearning

"At every crossroads on the path that leads to the future, tradition has placed 10,000 men to guard the past." —Maurice Maeterlinck

I've spent the summer reading, gardening, and enjoying the outdoors; now, there are just a few more unstructured days left until the new school year begins. How can I bring the myriad thoughts and ideas I've pondered over the summer back into the classroom? Simple in theory, but challenging in practice: I plan to unlearn.

Image courtesy: MorgueFile

Unlearn... ?

We no longer live in an analog, textbook world; we are digital, we are hyperconnected. Yet, much of our public school system is still structured according to outdated models and traditions, many of which are hopelessly broken. Institutional inertia is powerful, and change is slow and/or unwelcome.

To move forward in the 21st century will require tremendous change, a daunting and downright scary process. A good place to start is by unlearning—rethinking some of our "traditions," questioning their perceived validity ("Why are we doing this *this* way?"), and finally letting go of the past. To move forward it is imperative that we quickly unlearn, lest we become further mired in wasted time and energy.

On my personal list, I would like to unlearn (or continue unlearning) the following:

• Technology restrictions and limitations
• Grades: "Did I get an 'A'?" "Is this for a grade?" "Is this right?"
• Staff meetings
• Teacher-centered conference nights
• 45-minute class periods
• The "scientific method"
• Memorizing and standardized testing
• Homework

Is there anything you would like to unlearn? Will you join me in unlearning?

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I was inspired into thinking more about unlearning after reading two posts on the What Ed Said education blog:

10 Things Teachers Should Unlearn

1. Teachers know all the answers.
2. Teachers have to be in control of the class.
3. Teachers are responsible for the learning.
4. Students are obliged to respect teachers.
5. Learning can be measured by a letter or a number.
6. Teachers should plan activities and then assessments.
7. Learners need to sit quietly and listen.
8. Technology integration is optional.
9. Worksheets support learning.
10. Homework is an essential part of learning.

10 Things Parents Should Unlearn

1. Learning is best measured by a letter or a number.
2. Product is more important than process and progress.
3. Children need to be protected from any kind of failure.
4. The internet is dangerous for children.
5. Parents and teachers should discuss students without the learner present.
6. Homework is an essential part of learning.
7. The school is responsible for the child’s entire education.
8. Your child’s perspective is the only one.
9. Learning looks the same as when you went to school.
10. Focus on (and fix) your child’s shortcomings, rather than their successes.

Summer Break

Pardon me while I take a break and indulge in some gardening and hiking...

Where's My Professional Development?

Like it or not, in an era of never-ending educational budget cuts, the burden of continued professional development now falls squarely on the shoulders of teachers. Formalized, district-sponsored professional development opportunities within the school day and school year are few and far between; yet, the flood of revisions, reforms, and rollouts of new curricula and new initiatives continues at a dizzying pace. Try to keep up with the wave or be swamped by it—an unfair choice either way.

Image courtesy of Microsoft Clipart

The river flow of funds has slowed to a trickle in the drought-stricken desert of district- and school-level professional development—the oases spread further and further apart, the treks between more lonely and arduous. "When will we receive professional development on this?" and "When will we have time to talk about this?" become luxurious questions in a landscape of austerity. Our hero's journey becomes more perilous; the desire to give up and quit is often alluring.

To persist (and survive), we must look for new sources of professional sustenance and take ownership for our own growth. In a rapidly-evolving digital realm, there are endless opportunities to connect with others—we only need actively seek them out. Twitter is a vast oasis of companions and gurus eager to share their knowledge and wisdom: NASA, NOAA, NSTA, ISTE, ASCD, and countless other organizations and individuals serve up a wealth of information and resources via the Twitter stream to quench our professional thirst. Google Reader and Google+ offer an endless buffet of subscriptions to some of the most engaging and intriguing minds on the planet; again, we must seek this nourishment ourselves, but once found our appetite is sated.

In the maelstrom of shifting educational paradigms and draconian budget cuts, it is easy to become lost and disillusioned. As stewards of our children's education, the burden of assuming our own professional development seems overwhelming and unjust to us. But waiting for a miraculous rescue is a fatal mistake; clinging to a halcyon past is a fool's errand. We must assume our own journey, one step at a time, and continue seeking out the professional oases…

To Boldly Go...

A sampling of student-built spacecraft from our Astronomy Research Project...

To Boldly Go...

50 Years of Space Exploration
by National Geographic

Year after year I find that students know very little, if anything, about space exploration (which is personally very troubling). However, this lack of awareness provides a great opportunity to delve into the human exploration of space. Our 50+ years of interplanetary investigation is writ with both stunning discoveries and monumental failures, yet it is imperative that we keep traveling, keep searching, keep asking, keep discovering.

In a traditional "pick a planet" project, students are focused on finding facts about an object in our solar system. I like to turn the process around so that it reflects more of an inquiry-based, process-of-science research project. Our essential research question becomes, "What has human space exploration taught us about our solar system?" The emphasis of the project is placed on how we humans struggle to design, build, launch, navigate, and operate spacecraft to investigate the mysteries of our solar system. Instead of just looking up a bunch of facts, I ask students to create a system of research questions to ask about their chosen spacecraft and its mission target, then embark on their research utilizing a variety of incredible primary resources (mainly from NASA, and for which I create a classroom project web page as a launching area).

An excellent research project includes the following elements:

• Name, date, scientific purpose, and major scientific discoveries of the spacecraft mission
• Realistic, three-dimensional model of the spacecraft (using Earth-friendly materials) 
• Basic information about the scientific instruments on the spacecraft: what they are, what they do, how they work, what they measure, etc. explained in plain language
• Scientific data, information, and details about the solar system object visited: position/location in the solar system, distance from Sun, diameter, mass, composition, rotation/revolution data, atmosphere/temperature data, moons/rings data, etc. explained in plain language and using the metric system
• Other unique, interesting data and information about your object: can include non-scientific things such as stories, folklore, mythology, poetry, artwork, etc.
• A caption and credit next to every image borrowed from the internet as well as a complete list of scientifically diverse references in a bibliography (so that we respect others and their copyrights)

I am rewarded each year by the enthusiasm for this project and the overall depth of learning that occurs. Students gain a much better appreciation about the science and engineering challenges involved when exploring the cosmic frontiers beyond the safety of our tiny planet. And some of them even grow up to become rocket scientists themselves...  :)

Pursuit of Light

"NASA tells stories about big things: big places, big data, big ideas." The Pursuit of Light reminds us why scientific literacy is vital to our future.

Who are we, and what is our place in the universe? These are the really big questions that scientists ask. NASA is one of many science organizations that pursue answers to these fundamental questions. But the pursuit of light, and knowledge, and curiosity, and wonder, and excitement begins much earlier — in our classrooms. Passionate educators, passionate students, and passionate learning today create and nurture the literate citizens of tomorrow.

Making an Impact

Arizona's Meteor Crater

Looking around our solar system, we see evidence of impactors that have cratered the landscapes of Mars, Mercury, our Moon, and even planet Earth. What are the characteristics of impact craters and how are they formed? Using classroom models and simulations, we can investigate the factors the affect impact craters.

One of the best ways to begin a discussion of craters is by dissecting an image of a crater. Arizona's Meteor Crater provides a launching point for a study of craters and the impactors that formed them.

• How big is this crater? How wide? How deep? What evidence for scale do we see in the image?
• What are some physical features of this crater? (raised rim, steep walls, ejected material, central uplift)
• How big was the impactor?
• How fast was the impactor traveling?
• At what angle did the impactor hit?
• When did the impact happen?
• Where is the impactor?
• Why is this crater so well preserved?

From a discussion of these questions, we can begin to formulate research questions about the factors that affect impact craters:

• How does the diameter of an impactor affect the diameter and depth of a crater?
• How does the mass of an impactor affect the diameter and depth of a crater?
• How does the speed of an impactor affect the diameter and depth of a crater?
• How does the angle of an impactor affect the diameter and depth of a crater?

Impact Craters Lab

From our research questions, we can begin to plan our experiment. The lab investigation we conduct is modeled after an activity designed by NASA, outlined in their Exploring the Moon Educator Guide. Materials needed for this lab activity include Moon material (sand), impactors (marbles and golf balls), pans, balances, and metric rulers. Students test their hypotheses under controlled conditions in an attempt to better understand how an impact crater, such as the one in Arizona, could have formed and the energy involved in the impact.

Why is it important for us to understand craters? A study of geologic history reminds us that Earth has been hit by many impactors in the past. The largest of these impactors have repeatedly reset the evolutionary clock on our planet—mass extinctions of species such as dinosaurs are the result of planetary bombardment by rocks from space. It is only a matter of time before the next impactor threatens Earth.

If a large impactor is headed our way, is there anything we can do about it? While Hollywood-style scenarios involving nuclear missiles, massive explosions, and Bruce Willis single-handedly saving the day are exciting on the big screen, these solution just don't work out mathematically in real life (sorry…). For us to be prepared for a large impactor is a two-step process. We must first catalog the threat by surveying the skies around us and accurately tracking potential impactors. NASA and other organizations have begun to do this, but have not yet found everything—it is a massive undertaking. Second, we must be prepared not to simply blow an object out of space, but to gently finesse it into an orbit that harmlessly bypasses our planet. While the Hollywood excitement level is not as high, the chances for success (and the survival of our species) are much improved.

Universe Today has an excellent analysis of the many ways to deflect an asteroid, and Bad Astronomer Phil Plait explains the process of nudging a space rock out of our way should it come to pass close by. Additionally, there are multiple online resources for simulating impacts, including the Impact Calculator and Impact Earth.

Finally, while impacts have altered the landscapes of countless objects in our solar system and have changed the course of evolutionary history on planet Earth numerous times, they have also had one major positive side effect: the next time you look up in the sky and see the beautiful Moon, be awed by the massive impact between Earth and another long-gone planet-sized body that led to the Moon's formation some 4 billion years ago. Goodnight, Moon!

Earth Day 2012

Happy Earth Day! Go outside and get your hands and feet dirty...

Questions about the Moon

It was a simple query: "What questions do you have about the Moon?" A group of savvy and intelligent 8th graders (my students) pondered this question and came up with the following comprehensive list:

NASA: A New Map of the Moon

Physical Characteristics and Features

• How big is the Moon compared to the Earth?
• What is the diameter of the Moon?
• What is the Moon’s mass?
• Is the Moon smaller than Pluto?
• Why is the Moon a sphere?
• How far away is the Moon?
• Why are there craters on the Moon?
• How do craters on the Moon form?
• What is the largest crater on the Moon?
• Why is the Moon gray/white?
• What is the Moon’s temperature?
• What is the temperature difference between light and dark sides of the Moon?
• Does the Moon have a moon?
• Does the Moon have an atmosphere?
• What is the Moon’s atmosphere like?
• Is there oxygen on the Moon?
• Why isn’t there oxygen on the Moon?
• Does the Moon have weather?
• Does the Moon have wind?
• How much gravity is on the Moon?
• Does the Moon have a magnetic field?
• How strong is the Moon’s magnetic field?
• How high can you jump on the Moon?
• Can you make a fire on the Moon?
• Can you cook on the Moon?

Orbital Data

• Does the Moon rotate?
• How long does it take for the Moon to rotate?
• Does the Moon revolve around the Earth?
• How long does it take for the Moon to revolve around Earth?
• Why does the Moon orbit the Earth?
• Why do we only see one side of the Moon?
• Why are there phases of the Moon?

Lunar Composition

• What is inside the Moon?
• What is the Moon made of?
• What type of rock is the Moon made of?
• Does the Moon have layers like the Earth?
• How many layers does the Moon have?
• What’s in the Moon’s core?
• Is the core of the Moon the same as the core of the Earth?
• Does the Moon have landforms?
• Does the Moon have natural disasters (like, earthquakes, etc.)?
• Are there any fossils on the Moon?
• Is there life on the Moon?
• Does the Moon have water?
• Does the Moon have tectonic plates?
• Does the Moon have earthquakes?
• Is there lava on the Moon?
• How old is the Moon?

Lunar Formation

• How was the Moon formed?
• How did the Moon get there?
• How has the Moon changed over time?

Lunar Exploration

• How many people have landed on the Moon?
• Who else landed on the Moon?
• How many missions have we had to the Moon?
• How long does it take to get to the Moon?
• How much fuel does it take to visit the Moon?
• Where are the flags on the Moon?
• What have we accomplished by landing on the Moon?
• When did we first discover the Moon?
• Who hit the golf ball on the Moon?
• Will the Moon have livable conditions on the future?

Philosophical Questions

• What is the Moon’s purpose?
• What if we had no Moon?
• Who owns the Moon?
• Why is it called “Moon”?

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Question for educators, boards of education, policy makers, textbook publishers, et al.:

• Do your standards, curriculum, and educational materials reflect the innate curiosity and learning desires of our students?

Plate Tectonics — Putting It All Together

Why does the Earth's surface look the way it does? Why do Africa and South America look like they could fit together, like pieces of a puzzle? How could these pieces fit together? How do we know? What evidence do we have?

Earth's Tectonic Plates

One hundred years ago, plate tectonics was more of a crazy idea than a rock-solid scientific theory that explains why the Earth's surface looks the way it does. Helping students navigate how the theory was assembled bit-by-bit exposes them to both a deeper understanding of geology as well as the oft-messy nature of science itself. Theories are not always well-received when first proposed, and overwhelming evidence is needed for a fanciful idea to become a scientific theory. This is how science works.

In the classroom, we engage in a plate tectonics research map project to better understand how all of the geologic puzzle pieces fit together to complete the plate tectonics picture. Using primary and secondary internet resources, maps, posters, textbooks, and other artifacts, students add layer upon layer of geologic data and evidence onto a world map to see the patterns and mechanisms which work together in plate tectonics theory. In three to five days, students build evidence for the grand theory of geology that took more than half a century to initially develop. On the shoulders of giants we stand...

In the research project, students use the following websites to gain background knowledge about the scientific theory of plate tectonics and gather data for their world maps:

• Dynamic Earth: provides an excellent interactive overview about plate tectonics
• Optiputer Outreach: provides a wealth of images and animations to illustrate key geologic concepts
• Windows to the Universe: an always reliable source of leveled information about the Earth that can be viewed in both English and Spanish
• What on Earth Is Plate Tectonics?: the National Park Service tells the story of plate tectonics

Using these websites and other resources, students layer the following data and information onto a world map:

• prevalent earthquakes and volcanoes
• hot spots
• mid ocean ridges
• ocean trenches
• plate boundaries with their direction of movement
• plate names

Additionally, students are asked to illustrate the three major types of plate boundaries and how they work as well as assemble a Pangaea puzzle onto the back of their map. Finally, students are asked to explain in their own words what the scientific theory of plate tectonics is, how it works, and what evidence we have to support the theory. Along the way, students discover the story of Alfred Wegener—who first proposed the plate tectonics idea—and how he struggled and persevered throughout his short life to develop his ideas (which we fully accept today).

Spring Break

Spring break — time to play outside for awhile...

Earth System Science Project

Image courtesy of Microsoft Clipart

I've been pondering the idea of a comprehensive, collaborative science project in which students piece together all of the elements of the Earth system. I envision a giant interconnected, interdependent collage/infographic that weaves the myriad perspectives, voices, and creative talents of my students into one vision of what Earth science is all about...

Hear are a few broad guidelines and parameters for the project:

The Earth system is characterized by interactions among the following components:

• atmosphere—the gaseous envelope surrounding Earth
• hydrosphere—the liquid and ice water portions of Earth 
• lithosphere (geosphere)—the solid portion of Earth
• biosphere—the living portion of Earth

Matter and energy cycle among the living and nonliving components of the Earth system via different pathways and over varying amounts of time:

• weather cycle and atmospheric circulation
• climate cycle
• carbon cycle
• Earth’s energy budget
• water cycle and oceanic circulation
• rock cycle
• weathering, erosion, and deposition
• fossils and geologic time
• plate tectonics
• astronomical factors

Students will create the ultimate, illustrated Earth system mural/diagram showing:

• the different components of the Earth system
• the cycling of matter and energy throughout the Earth system
• macro to micro interconnections among cycles of the Earth system
• temporal/spatial fluxes across the Earth system
• the contributions that people in different cultures and at different times in history have made to advance our understanding of the Earth system

Of course, one of the largest challenges is orchestrating such a project. I'm still puzzling over that part—maybe it could look like a giant puzzle...

Reflections — Fossils 3

In 2010, I was nominated for the Presidential Award for Excellence in Math and Science Teaching—a prestigious honor for math and science teachers in the United States. The rigorous application process provided me with an excellent opportunity to reflect deeply on my classroom practice. Although I was not selected as a finalist, I value my experience in the process. Over the next three blog posts, I would like to share some of what I wrote for my application, which centered around a geologic unit on fossils.

The PAEMST application requires a written narrative on several dimensions of outstanding teaching, including the following areas:

• Dimension 1: Mastery of Science Content
• Dimension 2: Instructional Methods and Strategies
• Dimension 3: Effective Use of Student Assessments

In this entry, I would like to share Dimension 3, Effective Use of Student Assessments...

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I effectively use student assessments to evaluate, monitor, and improve student learning... 

Image courtesy of MorgueFile

Recall the essential learning questions for this project: 

• What are fossils? 
• How do fossils form? 
• What can fossils tell us about past life? 

For this project, students are assessed on the quality and depth of information communicated on their individual fossil ID cards. Specifically, each student is assessed on the following essential learning skills: 

• collecting detailed information from fossil “interviews;” 
• inferring geologic, environmental, and biological change through time based on fossil evidence; 
• interpreting rocks and their fossil content to determine past conditions; 
• describing how fossil evidence can be linked to environmental conditions and biological adaptations of the past.

Over the years, I have refined the “interview” questions to help students maximize their interpretation of clues. The questions have gotten more detailed and specific to better help students uncover the fossil’s life story. What originally began as an exercise in basic fossil identification many years ago has become a quest to understand the life story of a fossil through careful interpretation of evidence—asking essential questions to gain enduring understandings.

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I routinely assess and guide student learning... 

One-on-one discussions: These are individual conversations with students where I ask clarifying questions, ask students to explain their thinking to me, or have students show me a particular science skill. Emphasis is placed on meaningful responses that answer “how” and “why” rather than simply “who, what, when, where.” Example: “Tell me your thinking about… or, Show me how you did… or, What did you observe when…? or, What is your evidence for…?”

Table discussions: Usually conducted at the beginning of class, I ask students to discuss a particular topic or question among their table peers while I walk around listening to (or sometimes joining in with) their conversations. The purpose is to promote peer collaboration as well as check for understanding and/or misconceptions. Example: “With your table group, have a two-minute discussion: What do you think are some physical characteristics that all minerals have in common?”

Lab table talk: As students are working on a lab investigation, I circulate throughout the room and visit each table regularly. I ask clarifying questions as needed and ask students to share what they are doing and thinking. I listen and look for evidence of the science process: 

• setting up safe, controlled laboratory experiments; 
• recording detailed observations; making precise measurements; 
• collecting high quality data; discussing observations and evidence; 
• and analyzing results. 

Lab investigations: At the end of a lab investigation, I will often collect and grade my students’ lab reports to assess their learning. Many of my investigations use an Experiment Planning Guide, which helps students organize and formalize the process of science. I evaluate these planning guides according to the quality and completeness of scientific writing and thinking, particularly whether students can connect their observations, data, and written conclusions to the original learning goal or research question. Example: “An excellent conclusion restates the original purpose (the research question) and summarizes the results of the experiment in a logical, concise manner. An excellent conclusion also includes supporting details and evidence from the data. An excellent conclusion does not speculate on the unknown...”

Quizzes: During each major unit of study, I give one or two quizzes to further evaluate student mastery of science concepts and learning goals. These quizzes ask students to apply what they have learned during the course of a few interconnected lessons and usually involve short written response, data analysis and interpretation, and/or short performance task. Students may use their lab notes and resources during these quizzes, as I feel that using resources is an essential aspect of the scientific process. Example: “Identify two of the minerals from the mineral collection on the front lab table and fully describe the three convincing properties that led you to your identification.”

Projects: Students engage in longer lab investigations (e.g., fossil identification lab) or projects (e.g., physical oceanography research project) once or twice a trimester. I evaluate these projects against holistic “standards of excellence” that clearly define the criteria necessary for excellent learning.

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References

• Boulder Valley School District, 2009 Middle Level Earth and Space Science Curriculum Essentials Document, Earth and Space Science Essential Questions
• Ganse, J., Geology Unit, 8th Grade Earth Science, Fossil and Geologic Time
• Marshak, S., Earth: Portrait of a Planet (Third Edition), W.W. Norton & Company, 2008
• Murck, B. and Skinner, B., Geology Today: Understanding Our Planet, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999
• USGS Education, Schoolyard Geology, Fossils

Reflections — Fossils 2

In 2010, I was nominated for the Presidential Award for Excellence in Math and Science Teaching—a prestigious honor for math and science teachers in the United States. The rigorous application process provided me with an excellent opportunity to reflect deeply on my classroom practice. Although I was not selected as a finalist, I value my experience in the process. Over the next three blog posts, I would like to share some of what I wrote for my application, which centered around a geologic unit on fossils.

The PAEMST application requires a written narrative on several dimensions of outstanding teaching, including the following areas:

• Dimension 1: Mastery of Science Content
• Dimension 2: Instructional Methods and Strategies
• Dimension 3: Effective Use of Student Assessments

In this entry, I would like to share Dimension 2, Instructional Methods and Strategies...

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I employ a variety of instructional approaches to help students understand fossils...

Rock cycle video and diagram

Students watch a locally-produced video about the Rock Cycle, which identifies the three main rock families, explains how they were formed, and shows many local examples from each family. Students collaborate after the video to complete a blank rock cycle diagram with terms about rock products and the geologic processes that created them.

Rock identification lab

Students engage in a hands-on process of rock identification to learn the various physical properties and characteristics involved in identifying rocks by family and name. As part of the identification process, students must provide convincing evidence to go along with their identification.

Law of Superposition activity

Students infer the relative ages of rock layers in a vertical rock profile by examining and discussing various clues. They discover that, in general, the oldest rocks and rock layers are at the bottom of a rock profile—the Law of Superposition.

Traces of Tracks activity

Students analyze an image of fossilized animal tracks and reconstruct the story of an encounter between predator and prey. Students collaborate to infer the story from the trace fossil evidence.

Finding Clues to Rock Layers activity

Students analyze fossil clues and data contained in rock layers to determine the relative ages of the layers as well as the physical environment in which the organisms lived. In general, the deeper the rock layer the older the fossils buried within. Additionally, various geologic processes, such as weathering and erosion, can expose fossil layers at the Earth’s surface. 

Fossil ID Cards

Over the course of several days, students “interview” various fossils to infer the life story of once-living, but now fossilized, organisms, and create a detailed fossil identification card for each fossil interviewed. This hands-on, inquiry-based lab allows students to fully engage in the process of science by observing fossil specimens; asking key questions; gathering evidence from physical clues and inference; using a variety of scientific resources such as fossil identification books, posters, and diagrams; learning to avoid bias by following the fossil evidence; sharing data and ideas through peer collaboration; and hypothesizing and theorizing about the past geologic environments in which the fossil lived. Students display their fossil cards on large posters for the rest of the school to enjoy. 

Examples of interview questions include:

• What are the fossil’s physical characteristics? 
• How did this fossil move? 
• What did it eat? 
• In what environment or habitat did this fossil live? 
• What was its niche or purpose in life?

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I identify and build on students’ prior knowledge, and incorporate this knowledge in my general teaching strategies...

Image courtesy of MorgueFile

I strive to ensure that my science lessons build logically from point A to point B and that common themes and ideas are continuously woven throughout each unit as well as throughout the school year. My goal is to promote the transfer of understanding from one lesson to another, not just one-time memorization to be forgotten quickly. I regularly ask discussion questions that help activate prior knowledge, that tie different lessons together, and that help students make logical interconnections among various ideas and concepts.

• “Does anybody have a fossil collection? Tell us a little bit about your fossils.”
• “Have you ever been to a museum and seen a fossil dinosaur on display? Where did all those bones come from?”
• “Remember when we watched the rock cycle video? In which rock family would you most likely expect to find fossils? Why?”
• “You can find fossil sea shells up in the Rocky Mountains. How can that be? What do these fossils tell us about Earth history?”
• “Suppose you find a fossil of an X. What story can this fossil tell you? What are some clues you can look for to help explain this organism’s life?”
• “Here is an example fossil. What characteristics do you see? What kind of organism was this? What did it eat? Where did it live? How do you know?”

In the video I produced for my application, I used many of the types of questions outlined above to help students learn how to interview fossils in order to uncover their life story. My goal was for students to develop a non-biased technique for uncovering clues and evidence contained in fossils. For our fossil lessons, it is most important that students learn to “listen” to the fossil evidence with an open mind rather than just try to quickly name the fossil.

The video shows the first day of our fossil lessons, where we worked together as a group to prepare for our in-depth fossil interviews. The following three days after the video, students interviewed fossils, gathered information and evidence from the fossils and various classroom resources, and created detailed fossil identification cards with the inferred life story of each fossil.

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I use instructional strategies and techniques to meet the learning needs of all students, challenging those with stronger knowledge while ensuring learning for less accomplished students...

I utilize a variety of strategies to differentiate for the diverse learning needs of my students, and a few of these are outlined below:

• Creating hands-on, inquiry-based, authentic learning experiences that encourage students to think critically and develop explanations based on evidence
• Encouraging peer collaboration: students working together, talking science together, sharing data and ideas together
• Accommodating for different fossil identification skill levels: 
• Inferring basic to advanced information from fossil clues at increasing levels of descriptive detail
• Interpreting fossil structures from simple (bones, teeth, shells) to complex (type of bone, purpose of tooth)
• Working with incomplete vs. complete fossils (incomplete fossils are much more challenging to interpret than complete fossils)
• Drawing upon multiple intelligences skills and multiple learning modalities: drawing/visualization, writing, questioning, spatial manipulation, kinesthetic/hands-on observations
• Using effective questioning: engaging students (individually and within small lab table groups) with highly effective questions to encourage deeper meaning

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References

• Boulder Valley School District, 2009 Middle Level Earth and Space Science Curriculum Essentials Document, Earth and Space Science Essential Questions
• Ganse, J., Geology Unit, 8th Grade Earth Science, Fossil and Geologic Time
• Marshak, S., Earth: Portrait of a Planet (Third Edition), W.W. Norton & Company, 2008
• Murck, B. and Skinner, B., Geology Today: Understanding Our Planet, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999
• USGS Education, Schoolyard Geology, Fossils

Reflections — Fossils 1

In 2010, I was nominated for the Presidential Award for Excellence in Math and Science Teaching—a prestigious honor for math and science teachers in the United States. The rigorous application process provided me with an excellent opportunity to reflect deeply on my classroom practice. Although I was not selected as a finalist, I value my experience in the process. Over the next three blog posts, I would like to share some of what I wrote for my application, which centered around a geologic unit on fossils.

The PAEMST application requires a written narrative on several dimensions of outstanding teaching, including the following areas:

• Dimension 1: Mastery of Science Content
• Dimension 2: Instructional Methods and Strategies
• Dimension 3: Effective Use of Student Assessments

In this entry, I would like to share Dimension 1, Mastery of Science Content...

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There are three essential questions to guide the study of fossils:

1. What are fossils? 
2. How do fossils form? 
3. What can fossils tell us about past life? 

Planet Earth is billions of years old, and during its long history a diversity of life has evolved. Fossils are the remains of living organisms preserved in the geologic record through burial, and they provide valuable evidence for this long Earth history. Students need fundamental understanding of the geologic processes that led to fossil formation, the types of fossils that form as a result, and the types of clues that are found within the fossils that can be used to interpret past history.

Image courtesy of MorgueFile

Three main types of fossils—body, trace, and replacement—form over time periods of thousands to millions of years. Each type of fossil has unique physical characteristics and clues to help us infer past Earth history. Because fossils are found mainly within sedimentary rocks, it is essential that students understand the constructive and destructive processes involved in sedimentary rock formation, which ultimately lead to the preservation of once-living organisms.

Information about the environments in which fossilized organisms lived can be inferred from fossil clues when students rigorously apply the process of science. Making careful, detailed observations using different scientific tools (such as hand lenses and microscopes), asking a variety of probing “interview” questions about each fossil, referencing fossil identification guides and charts, and collaborating with other student scientists are all key to interpreting fossil clues in a non-biased, open-minded manner to unlock the information about their past environments.

Fossil evidence helps us infer geologic, environmental, and biological changes through time. By examining fossils and reconstructing the story they tell, students fine tune their “process of science” skills and develop a better understanding of the 3.5+ billion-year life history of planet Earth. Specifically, students engage in making detailed observations of fossils and asking questions in order to infer information about the geologic past.Students will apply what they learned during fossil identification to a future plate tectonics research project. The skills and knowledge developed in this lesson will be applied to understanding spatial and temporal changes of Earth’s tectonic plates—fossil evidence gives us clues that Earth’s crustal plates move and that continents were once connected.

This particular lesson on fossils contributes to the “Six Facets of Understanding”—a lesson planning tool I use to develop deep, engaging learning activities—as outlined below: 

• Explanation: Students address the following conceptual questions: 1) What are fossils? 2) What the different types of fossils? 3) How do fossils form? 4) How can we infer information about past environments from examining fossils?
• Interpretation: Students observe and “interview” fossils to determine the physical characteristics of organisms and infer the past environment in which they lived.
• Perspective: Students make connections between life and conditions on planet Earth today and life and conditions during geologic eras and periods of the past.
• Self-Knowledge: Students may inquire about or begin to assemble their own fossil collection, or seek opportunities to learn more about fossils (for example, museum visits).
• Empathy: Students consider why geologists study fossils and develop a better understanding about the difficulties involved in fossil interpretation and reconstruction.
• Application: Students engage as fossil scientists and create their own fossil identification cards that show physical characteristics and inferred information about past environments.

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A variety of misconceptions and misunderstandings about fossils can arise in the science classroom. Here is a summary:

All rocks contain fossils.

Fossils are found mainly in sedimentary rocks. For an organism to become a fossil, a protective layer of sediment, such as sand or mud, must quickly cover up its remains. Otherwise, the remains are likely to be eaten, to decompose, or to be destroyed before fossilization can occur. Probing questions to ask students: 

• Why don’t we find fossils inside rocks like granite, basalt, gneiss, or schist?
• Why do we find fossils inside rocks like sandstone, shale, and slate?

Fossils are actual pieces of dead animals and plants, rather than preserved impressions of the original organisms. 

During the fossilization process, the living remains of organisms decay and are replaced by minerals, leaving behind an impression of the original organism. Exceptions to this include insects that are fully preserved in fossilized tree sap (amber). However, most organisms are preserved in an altered state during the fossilization process. Probing questions to ask students: 

• Petrified wood, a fossil, is not wood anymore. What happened to the wood?
• If you have a fossil shell or leaf imprint, what happened to the original organism?

All living organisms leave behind fossils, and the fossil record is complete. 

Hard structures such as bones, teeth, shells, and exoskeletons are more likely to be preserved during the fossilization process than soft body materials such as tissues, organs, and/or hair/feathers, which decay more readily. It is estimated that only 1% to 3% of organisms have fossilized and/or been described. While our fossil record keeps growing as we explore more and more of Earth’s crust, we will never have a 100% fossil record because not all species leave behind fossils and not all fossils can ever be found or recovered. Probing questions to ask students: 

• Why do scientists keep looking for fossils, even today?
• Why don’t we find fully preserved, fully intact organisms (like dinosaurs) buried in the ground? Why do we usually just find skeletons, bones, teeth, etc.?
• When an organism dies, what parts decay and what parts are preserved, and why? 

Geologic time is short, and fossils are relatively young. 

Geologic time is vast. The fossilization process, which occurs during the sedimentary rock formation process, can take thousands and millions of years to occur. Various dating techniques allow scientists to accurately determine the ages of rocks and fossils. Fossils are thousands, millions, and in some cases, billions of years old. Probing questions to ask students: 

• How do you think fossilized seashells got to the top of the Rocky Mountains?
• What does finding fossilized seashells in the Rocky Mountains tell us about the past?

Few species have gone extinct during Earth’s history. 

More than 99% of all species (which number in the millions) that ever lived on planet Earth have gone extinct. The fossil record leaves us evidence of species that are no longer alive and what the environments in which they lived were like. Probing questions to ask students: 

• Have you ever seen an organism like this (show pictures of extinct organisms)?
• What happened to these organisms?

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References

• Boulder Valley School District, 2009 Middle Level Earth and Space Science Curriculum Essentials Document, Earth and Space Science Essential Questions
• Ganse, J., Geology Unit, 8th Grade Earth Science, Fossil and Geologic Time
• Marshak, S., Earth: Portrait of a Planet (Third Edition), W.W. Norton & Company, 2008
• Murck, B. and Skinner, B., Geology Today: Understanding Our Planet, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999
• USGS Education, Schoolyard Geology, Fossils